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At US-based Binghamton University, a multidisciplinary research team led by Professor Seokheun “Sean” Choi is exploring new approaches to bacteria-powered biobatteries by integrating laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) 3D printing technology. Working in collaboration with Assistant Professor Dehao Liu, a specialist in LPBF from the Mechanical Engineering Department, the team used this metal AM method to produce stainless-steel microarchitectures with finely tuned porosity and surface roughness.
This design enhances bacterial colonization while facilitating nutrient delivery and waste removal—key challenges that have hindered carbon- and polymer-based anode materials in the past. “LPBF is ideal for biobatteries because it enables high-precision, customizable 3D structures with complex geometries, essential for maximizing surface area and energy density,” Liu explained.
The team also includes Electrical and Computer Engineering Assistant Professor Anwar Elhadad; Yang “Lexi” Gao, a current PhD student of Choi; and Liu’s PhD students Guangfa Li and Jiaqi Yang. The project is supported by a 2024 grant from the National Science Foundation.
Binghamton University researchers created a biobattery run on bacteria that produces 1 milliwatt in power. Image via Provided.
Inside the System: How Bacteria Generate Power
The biobattery generates electrical current through an electrochemical reaction driven by bacterial endospores—dormant microbial forms that can survive harsh environments and become active under suitable conditions. The system consists of three primary components: a cathode (positive electrode), an anode (negative electrode), and an ion-exchange membrane that facilitates electricity generation. For optimal performance, the anode must be three-dimensional, allowing bacteria to colonize densely while maintaining access to nutrients and enabling waste removal.
“A flat, two-dimensional anode is inefficient,” Choi said. “It restricts nutrient delivery to bacteria and hinders waste removal.”
To address this, the researchers used LPBF to fabricate 3D stainless-steel anodes with precise microstructural control, creating a more suitable environment for bacterial activity and energy generation. Traditional anode materials such as carbon or polymers typically have lower conductivity and are susceptible to thermal damage during processing—issues avoided by using metal-based structures.
“Two years ago, we started to use stainless steel mesh as an anode, because its conductivity is really good and it’s structurally very strong,” Choi said. “We were successful integrating the microbial fuel cell into electronics like this. The problem with commercially available mesh is that we cannot control the porosity and roughness of it. We’d just buy it and then drop in bacterial cells.”
By connecting the biobatteries in series or parallel, researchers achieved 1 milliwatt of power. Photo via Provided.
Choi noted the potential of LPBF as it constructs 3D metal parts by selectively melting and solidifying thin layers of metal powder with a laser. By connecting multiple biobatteries in series or parallel, the team generated close to 1 milliwatt of power—enough to run a 3.2-inch thin-film transistor LCD screen—representing one of the most powerful outputs among Choi’s previous biobattery designs. Additionally, the stainless-steel structures enabled repeated reuse of bacterial cells without significant loss of performance.
Looking ahead, the team intends to streamline the manufacturing process by developing an integrated 3D printing approach that fabricates all biobattery components simultaneously. They also plan to implement power management strategies—comparable to those used in solar energy systems—to improve energy efficiency through better control of charging and discharging cycles.
Advances in 3D Printing with LPBF
The biobattery research at Binghamton University employs laser powder bed fusion, a technique that has recently seen important advancements beyond academic research, including in industrial applications.
For instance, ADDiTEC, a US-based developer of advanced metal additive manufacturing technologies, unveiled its first Laser Powder Bed Fusion system during RAPID + TCT 2025 in Detroit. The new platform, called Fusion S, expands the company’s technology offerings, which previously focused on Directed Energy Deposition (DED) and Liquid Metal Jetting (LMJ). With this release, ADDiTEC becomes one of the few companies globally offering three complementary metal additive manufacturing technologies.
Elsewhere, Munich-based 3D printer manufacturer EOS announced the launch of the EOS M 290 1kWlaser powder bed fusion 3D printer. An upgraded version of the EOS M 290 released back in 2014, this new offering incorporates a single 1kW laser and is designed for the serial production of copper and copper alloy parts. EOS’s partner company AMCM developed the M 290 1kW as part of its custom additive manufacturing portfolio. Targeted towards applications within the space, energy and transportation sectors, the new 3D printer has reportedly already received strong market demand.
Step into a modern kitchen, open a refrigerator, walk into an office building elevator, or observe medical equipment—in these seemingly different scenarios, one material silently underpins our lives: Stainless Steel 304. As the most common and widely used grade of austenitic stainless steel, SS304 has become an “invisible champion” in industrial manufacturing and daily life, thanks to its excellent corrosion resistance, good formability, and outstanding hygienic properties.
Since stainless steel was invented in the early 20th century, 304 stainless steel has evolved into the world’s most popular stainless steel variety, accounting for approximately 50% of the stainless steel market share. From aerospace to food processing, from architectural decoration to medical devices, this alloy occupies an irreplaceable position in modern materials science due to its unique combination of properties. This article will provide a comprehensive analysis of the chemical composition, mechanical properties, application fields, processing techniques, and selection guidelines for 304 stainless steel, offering a thorough reference for engineers, designers, purchasers, and general consumers.
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